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Abstract Positive lightning leaders are a ubiquitous, yet poorly understood, component of lightning flashes. Upward lightning started by positive leaders may be formed when nearby storm activity induces electrical charges in a tall structure, such as communications towers or wind turbines. Alternatively, upward lightning can be triggered with the rocket‐and‐wire technique. In this paper, we introduce a new self‐consistent model for this important discharge mode, one which solves Maxwell's equations under the quasi‐electrostatic approximation. The model also includes a realistic treatment of the nonlinear plasma conductivity within the leader channel. This new computational tool explains the origin of the positive leader speed, of 10s of km/s, as well as why it displays a steady behavior over time. The model also explains the temporal evolution of current to ground measured during the early stages of rocket‐triggered lightning, where the current exhibits a series of small‐amplitude pulses, which disappear over time. The article also outlines straightforward criteria for leader inception, which may have practical applications for lightning protection. 

Abstract Narrow bipolar events (NBEs) are impulsive and powerful intracloud discharges. Recent observations indicate that some NBEs exhibit a slanted orientation rather than strictly vertical. This paper investigates the effect of the slanted NBEs using a newly developed rebounding‐wave model. The modeling results are validated against the full‐wave Finite‐ Difference Time‐Domain method and compared with measurements for both vertical and slanted NBE cases. It is found that the inclination of the NBEs affects both the waveforms and amplitudes of the electrostatic, induction and radiation components of the electric fields at close distances (≤10 km). However, it primarily influences the amplitudes of the fields for distances beyond 50 km, where the radiation component dominates, resulting in changes of ≥30% when the slant angle exceeds 30°. The slanted rebounding‐wave model improves the agreement with respect to a purely vertical channel and can be extended to any discharge geometry at arbitrary observation distances. 

During the 2022 New Mexico monsoon season, we deployed two X‐ray scintillation detectors, coupled with a 180 MHz data acquisition system to detect X‐rays from natural lightning at the Langmuir Lab mountain‐top facility, located at 3.3 km above mean sea level. Data acquisition was triggered by an electric field antenna calibrated to pick up lightning within a few km of the X‐ray detectors. We report the energies of over 240 individual photons, ranging between 13 keV and 3.8 MeV, as registered by the LaBr3(Ce) scintillation detector. These detections were associated with four lightning flashes. Particularly, four‐stepped leaders and seven dart leaders produced energetic radiation. The reported photon energies allowed us to confirm that the X‐ray energy distribution of natural stepped and dart leaders follows a power‐law distribution with an exponent ranging between 1.09 and 1.96, with stepped leaders having a harder spectrum. Characterization of the associated leaders and return strokes was done with four different electric field sensing antennas, which can measure a wide range of time scales, from the static storm field to the fast change associated with dart leaders.